96-0143
The purpose of this paper is to review the evolution of rail passenger
service, other than traditional streetcars, serving metropolitan
areas, extending from the central cities to suburbs and extended
radial areas.
The earliest form was the traditional commuter service operated by the
steam railroads. This service began in the mid nineteenth century, and
slowly expanded, continuing to grow up until roughly 1920. The trend
reversed in the late twenties and the depression years of the thirties
and service ended in some areas, but the pressure for continued
service was so great the governmental bodies eventually took over
support or outright operation of remaining trains. As of 1997, service
is confined to major metropolitan areas.
Next came rail rapid transit systems, beginning in the latter part of
the nineteenth century, using elevated or underground tracks. For
years only four metropolitan areas had such systems, but new ones have
been built in seven cities in recent years. These are all assisted or
operated by governmental units; all use electric power.
Amtrack has become involved in the management of a number of these
systems, in addition to supporting, with state aid, radial commuter
rail lines to outlying points. The future of these radial trains is
very much in doubt as Amtrack support is being phased out. Some states
are planning to assume the full cost; others are likely to phase out
the service.
In the period shortly before and after 1900, the electric interurban
railway developed, primarily initially passenger carriers, operated
with electric power. While a portion of their traffic was intercity,
they also supplied substantial radial and commuter services. The peak
mileage year was 1916. With the coming of the automobile and then the
depression, service was curtailed. By 1946 most of the mileage was
gone, and by the mid fifties the last of the service was
discontinued--with one exception, the South Shore, which continues to
operate (by a governmental unit) in 1997.
In the last two decades, a new type of service developed, that of
modern light rail transit (LRT) using electric power, private right of
way, and light equipment though having some characteristics of
extended streetcar lines of the past. Ten cities now have LRT lines
and others are considering them.
Of these various forms, the standard railroad operation is the most
costly but the best in terms of quality of service, followed in these
respects by heavy rail transity. The chief drawback is the high
initial cost. Light rail transit offers service of almost comparable
quality--but it is feasible only when it is possible to use former
railroad rights of way or medians in expressways.
The paper concludes with consideration of the problems faced by all
metropolitan passenger carriers
96-0142
This paper analyzes the behavior or real earnings of male and female
workers with different levels of education from Census data for 1967
through 1995. It develops new dynamic social rates of return to
education, defined as rates that incorporate the effects of annual
shifts in cross sectional age-earnings profiles.
Dynamic rates of return for a high school education have remained
relatively flat sinc 1967, but for college graduates have risen
sharply since 1980. Cross sectional rates understate the true
bachelor's-level dynamic rate by 1995 by 4-5 percentage points, which
if for some purposes are corrected for ability and background factors,
are 11.97% for males and 12.65% for females.
96-0141
We study whether, holding the level of a firm's performance constant,
the compensation of a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is affected by the
quarterly timing of results. We find that the timing of profits does
not effect CEO pay, which may suggest that smoothing firm income is as
important to CEOs as maximizing short-term bonus payments. Also,
managers have financial incentives to move sales between fiscal
quarters. This potentially distortionary behavior may be necessary to
allow boards of directors to base compensation on the best information
about future performance. Finally, our most puzzling result is that
CEOs are paid more for mid-year increases in market value relative to
the first or fourth fiscal quarter.
96-0140
This paper describes a framework for the coordination and integration
of information systems. By modeling typical enterprise information
systems as consisting of multiple agents with different
functionalities, the methodology provides the representational
formalism, coordination mechanisms, and control schemes necessary for
integrating heterogeneous units of an information system while meeting
such performance criteria as overall effectiveness, efficiency
responsiveness, and robustness.
The framework is applied to the development of a manufacturing
information system for managing the production processes for making
printed circuit boards. Performance results confirm that the system
integration framework is important to support complex business
processes that involve multiple steps of activities processed by a
group of agents across a variety of functionalities
96-0139
Recognizing the deficiencies of the static monocentric-city mode,
urban economists have expended a large amount of research effort since
the mid 1970's in developing models where housing capital is durable
rather than malleable. Unlike the static model, durability of housing
makes continual redevelopment of the city uneconomical, and this means
that the city's spatial structure at a given point in time depends in
its past history. The purpose of the present paper is to provide a
self-contained exposition of the major elements of the durable-housing
literature, providing a useful reference for students and researchers.
96-0138
This paper presents an amenity-based theory of location by income. The
theory shows that the relative location of different income groups
depends on the spatial pattern of amenities in a city. When the center
has a strong amenity advantage over the suburbs, the rich are likely
to live at central locations. When the center's amenity advantage is
weak or negative, the rich are likely to live in the suburbs. The
virtue of the theory is that it ties location by income to a city's
idiosyncratic characteristics. It thus predicts a multiplicity of
location patterns across cities, consistent with real-world
observation.
96-0137
Recent theoretical studies provide two alternative models of urban
growth controls. In the amenity-creation mode, consumers experience a
negative population externality. When the city's population is reduced
by a growth control, the resulting amenity is fully capitalized in
land rents, creating a windfall for landowners. The alternative
supply-restriction view of controls asserts that the control-related
increase in land prices is caused by a restriction in the supply of
developable land, having no connection to amenity effects. The present
paper provides a synthesis and extension of previous work on these
models. The goal is to provide a concise, self-contained treatment of
the existing modeling approaches, creating a useful reference for
other researchers.
96-0136
Since Gauss (1821) it has been generally accepted that 2 methods of
combining observations by minimizing sums of squared errors have
significant computational advantages over earlier 1 methods based on
minimization of absolute errors advocated by Boscovich, Laplace and
others. However 1 methods are known to have significant robustness
advantages over 2 methods in many applications, and related quantile
regression methods provide a useful, complementary approach to
classical least-squares estimation of statistical models. Combining
recent advances in interior point methods for solving linear programs
with a new statistical preprocessing approach for 1 -type problems, we
show that 1 methods can be made competitive with 2 methods in terms of
computational speed throughout the entire range of problem sizes,
including those based in massive datasets
96-0135-B
These notes are an informal, first installment in an ongoing project
to develop a convenient template for computational experimentation in
econometrics. The approach is illustrated by means of an example based
on some current research with Steve Portnoy on improving the speed of
quantile regression algorithms. The computations are carried in SPLUS,
but similar techniques could be adapted for any modern computing
environment designed for statistical applications. The objective is to
provide a reasonably automatic, almost painless, way to make
experimental results self-documenting and reproducible. With minor
modification the same approach could be adapted to empirical
applications.
96-0135-A
In this paper we present a proposed information infrastructure
framework for supporting management of electronic virtual
organizations. We identify the life cycle phases (and their associated
decision processes) of virtual organizations and describe the
requirements for an information infrastructure to support the
management of virtual organizations throughout their life cycle. We
also discuss several coordination technologies including electronic
data interchange (EDI), groupware, the Internet and Intranets.
Inter/Intranet technologies are matched with the mechanisms required
for virtual organization management. The importance of information
infrastructure to virtual organization management is illustrated
through a set of simulations of supply chains using demand management
strategies such as make-to-order (MTO), assembly-to-order (ATO), and
make-to-stock (MTS). A supply chain is an instance of a virtual
organization in the operations phase. Performance is compared between
traditional static (stable partnership) supply chains and dynamic
(virtual) supply chains utilizing a dynamic material allocation (DMA)
strategy to respond to environmental change.
We make several conclusions based on our study. First, the DMA
strategy, in general, enables cycle times to be reduced while
inventory costs remain stable. Second, we conclude that virtual
organization management relies heavily on its information
infrastructure. Our infrastructure supports not only first order
coordination such as information sharing, but also second order
coordination (adaptive innovation) where this shared information is
utilized to decide how to dynamically reallocate resources across the
organization. Our overall conclusion is that an information
infrastructure, utilizing Internet and Intranet technology, can
support the communication required for effective virtual organization
management throughout its life cycle.
96-0134
This paper is to study the dynamics of business processes and
interactions between business units in an enterprise, and to this end,
we developed a framework for enterprise modeling using the
process-hierarchy approach. We developed and implemented a multi-agent
information system (MAIS) for the supply-chain network for capturing
both the structure and the processes of an enterprise. The MAIS is
implemented on the Swarm simulation platform and models the order
fulfillment process (OFP) as one of the core tasks of supply-chain
networks. In addition to modeling the interactions in the OFP, the
MAIS is also used as a simulation testbed to experiment with different
strategies to improve the performance of the OFP.
96-0133
Optimal operating policies and corresponding managerial insight are
developed for a monopolistic firm that establishes dynamically a
stocking level and a selling price for its product while exploiting
information gathered from ongoing operations. Given a management
situation in which the demand function depends on selling price and
includes an unknown scale parameter, learning occurs as the firm
monitors the market's response to its decisions and then updates it
characterization of the demand function. Of primary interest is the
effect of censored data since a firm's observations often are
restricted to sales. Results indicate that the joint quantity/price
problem reduces to a single variable problem in which the principal
decision is the safety factor. In particular, the most recent decision
for safety factor sufficiently captures cumulative learning, thereby
providing all relevant information for revising the characterization
of the demand function. In addition, given the optimal safety factor
for a period, the optimal stocking quantity/selling price decision
vector is determined myopically. Further results include a
computationally viable algorithm for solving a multiple period
problem. And, from a managerial standpoint, both the first period
optimal selling price and stocking quantity increase with the length
of the problem horizon.
96-0132
We provide a characterization of the Euclidean Yu Solution from the
multiobjective programing literature. This solution minimizes the
Euclidean distance between the utopia point and the feasible set, and
is closely related to solutions from the bargaining with claims
literature. An interesting feature of this characterization is that it
is formally dual to the standard characterization on the Nash
Bargaining solution. Characterizations are also provided for solutions
which are dual to the egalitarian and Kalai-Smorondinsky bargaining
solutions.
96-0131
We show that for any pair of knapsack problems, there is a single
problem whose optimal solution corresponds to each problem of the
pair, for two adjacent right-hand sides.
96-0130
In this paper we present a proposed information infrastructure
framework for supporting supply chain management. We identify the
application, database and functional requirements of the
infrastructure. We also discuss the evolution of coordination
technologies, that fit within the functional infrastructure
requirements, that have been used to support interorganizational
systems including electronic data interchange (EDI), the Internet, and
finally, Intranets. The importance of information infrastructure to
supply chain management is illustrated through a set of simulations of
Type I convergent assembly (automobiles), Type II divergent assembly
(electronics) and Type III divergent differentiation (fashion apparel)
type supply chains.
We conclude that supply chain management relies heavily on its
information infrastructure. The infrastructure enables inventory costs
to be reduced, while maintaining acceptable order fulfillment cycle
times, because information, which provides the basis for enhanced
coordination and reduced uncertainty, can substitute for inventory. We
also conclude that the critical information for each supply chain type
varies. For example, convergent assembly relies heavily on supply
(material availability and capacity) information, while divergent
differentiation relies heavily on demand (forecast and order)
information. We feel that an information infrastructure, utilizing
Intranet technology, can support the information sharing required for
effective supply chain management while reducing the security concerns
that arise from using the Internet.
96-0129
96-0128
96-0127
In English auctions an auctioneer sometimes receives (second-price)
bids from bidders who can not attend the auction. These bids are
referred to as mail-in bids, left bids, or bookbids, and are commonly
handled by an auctioneer's assistant. In this paper I consider
auctions where there is one bid left with the auctioneer in an English
auction with no reserve. The auctioneer can increase his revenue by
cheating, at least partially (through phantom bids or large bidding
increments), on the bookbid when the bookbidder's valuation is more
likely to the highest than the second highest among all valuations.
This is true even if, in equilibrium, this cheating is perfectly
anticipated. This implies that the acquisition of a good reputation is
not a sufficient incentive for honest auctioneer behavior.
Illustrative examples are also included. In these examples it is shown
that, even though partial cheating increases auctioneer revenue,
complete cheating is never profitable.
96-0126
Instructions and ideas for building an interactive homepage for your
economics class are provided. The article tells you how to link your
course materials, sources of economic data and information, your
lectures and spreadsheets, and how to communicate with, examine and
engage your students. A generic economics homepage will get you
started.
96-0125
Amtrak was established in 1971 in order to retain a basic national
rail passenger service with the aid of federal funds. Despite numerous
obstacles, Amtrak succeeded in many respects up to 1991. Ridership
gradually increased, and the required subsidy fell as the system
became more self-supporting. After 1991, however, the trend reversed;
some decline in ridership occurred, and the required subsidy rose.
Congress, however, a long supporter of Amtrak, cut back on the
support, forcing curtailment in services. From all indications the
system is not viable as it stands, given the funds Congress appears
willing to provide, and changes are necessary. Under present
legislation Amtrak must eliminate any deficit by 1999 or be
liquidated.
Amtrak provides significant externality benefits, in the form of a
lessening of highway congestion and of the need for building
additional miles of expressways and interstates. The cost of the
subsidy is a very minor element in the total budget picture.
Restructuring of the system, with reduced service on the long-distance
"vacation" trains and redirection of service in favor of
shorter distance trains, which offer the greatest externality gains,
should both reduce the need for subsidy and increase the gains to
society.
An important element in the system has been the operation of
state-supported trains, in addition to the basic national network.
These include four routes in Illinois. Legislation in 1996 eliminated
direct federal support for these trains, increasing the size of the
state subsidy required; the costs to the states will rise still more
as Amtrak shifts to measuring the deficit on the basis of fully
allocated costs, rather than short-run and long-run avoidable costs.
Even with these increases, the needed subsidy will be a very small
element in state budgets and low relative to the costs of new
expressway and interstate construction.
Amtrak also provides an important service in managing most of the rail
commuter systems in the country, one that does not cost the federal
government any financial support.
Illinois has been a pioneer in supporting passenger service, on four
routes, all of which offer significant advantages at relatively low
cost to the state. California, Washington state, and North Carolina
have taken particularly active role in sponsoring state-supported
commuter trains.
96-0124
One of the main purpose of the frontier literature is to estimate
inefficiency. Given this objective, it is unfortunate that the issue
of estimating "firm specific" inefficiency has not received
much attention. To estimate the firm specific (technical)
inefficiency, the standard procedure is to use the men of the
inefficiency term conditional on the entire composed error as
suggested by Jondrow, Lovell, Materov and Schmidt (1982). This
conditional mean could be viewed as the average loss of output
(return). Along with the mean, it is quite natural to consider the
conditional variance which could provide a measure of production
uncertainty or risk. Once we have the conditional mean and variance,
we can easily construct confidence intervals for firm specific
inefficiency. We postulate that when a firm attempts to move towards
the frontier it not only increase its efficiency, but it also reduces
it production uncertainty and this will lead to shorter confidence
intervals. Analytical expressions for production uncertainty under
different distributional assumptions are provided, and it is shown
that the technical inefficiency and the production uncertainty are
monotonic functions of the entire composed error term. It is very
interesting to note that this monotonicity result is valid under
different distributional assumptions of the inefficiency term.
Furthermore, some alternative measures of production uncertainty are
also proposed, and the concept of production uncertainty is
generalized to the panel data models. Finally, our theoretical results
are illustrated with an empirical example.
96-0123
We consider a new model of a local public good economy with
differentiated crowding in which a distinction is made between the
tastes and crowding characteristics of agents. In this model it is
possible to have taste-homogeneous jurisdictions that take advantage
of the full array of possible crowding effects (labor
complementarities, for example). Nevertheless, we find the somewhat
surprising result that taste-homogeneous jurisdictions are sometimes
strictly superior to taste-homogeneous jurisdictions with the same
crowding profile. We introduce a notion of hedonic independence, which
stipulates that the values of an agent's characteristics (his taste
type and crowding type) are independent. In general, hedonic
independence is not satisfied; for example, there may be an advantage
in having a taste for the sort of product that you are good at
producing. We show that if hedonic independence is satisfied, however,
then the core is essentially taste-homogeneous. We conclude by
discussing how hedonic independence might arise form market
interactions.
96-0122
We examine a local public goods economy with differentiated crowding.
The main innovation is that we assume that the crowding effects of
agents are a result of choices that agents make. For example, agents
may be crowded (positively or negatively) by the skills that other
members of their jurisdictions possess and these skills may be
acquired through utility maximizing educational investment choices
made in response to equilibrium wages and educational costs. In such
an environment, we show that taste-homogeneous jurisdictions are
optimal. This contrasts with results for both the standard
differentiated crowding model, and crowding types model. We also show
that the core and equilibrium are equivalent, and that
decentralization is possible through anonymous prices having a
structure similar to cost-share equilibrium prices.
96-0120
This paper models round robin group decisions with individuals
updating their evaluations every round. The updating mechanism of each
individual in any round is as in Bordley (1983). The analysis reported
in this paper shows (a) the conditions under which any such group
would converge to a consensus evaluation, (b) the maximum number of
rounds before such convergence occurs and (c) the consensus
evaluation. The model is also shown to capture the empirical results
reported in group decision making by Boje and Murnigham (1982),
consumer decision making by Rao and Steckel (1991), and the Delphi
forecasting technique by Dalkey and Helmer (1963).
96-0119
This paper constitutes a brief, rather idiosyncratic, survey of rank
tests stressing their connection in linear model applications to the
theory of quantile regression through the formal duality of linear
programming based on the regression rankscore functions introduced by
Jurecková and Gutenbrunner.
96-0118
96-0117
A central challenge in the knowledge creation process of strategic
management is to integrate previously unconnected theories singularly
focused on either the content of the processes of strategy making. We
discuss approaches to the integration of such dissociative theories of
strategy at three levels: (1) the strategy making and testing
processes of managers competing in specific contexts; (2) the theory
building and testing processes of researchers looking for insights
that are generalizable across competitive contexts; and (3) the
potential forms of interactions between managers and researchers that
can be effective in building generalized strategy theory that also
works in specific contexts.
This paper suggests that strategy researchers and managers become
engaged in an interactive, reciprocating process whose objective is
building pragmatic strategy theory. To this end, we propose that
researchers and managers embark on a new theory-building process in
which the generalized theories of researchers and contextual theories
of managers may evolve a new model of double-loop learning. In
reconnecting management research and management practice, the model of
double-loop learning we propose here is an empirical research method
in the pragmatic scientific tradition. As such, it offers a useful
addition to the positivist scientific mainstream in strategy research.
96-0116
This paper reviews procedures for computing saddle points of certain
continuous concave-convex functions defined on polyhedra and
investigates how certain parameters and payoff functions influence
equilibrium solutions. The discussion centers on two widely-studied
applications: missile defense and market share attraction games. In
both settings, each player allocates a limited resource, called
effort, among a finite number of alternatives. Equilibrium solutions
to these two-person games are particularly easy to compute under a
"proportional effectiveness" hypothesis, either in closed
form or in a finite number of steps. One of the more interesting
qualitative properties we establish is the identification of
conditions under which the maximizing player can ignore the values of
the alternatives in determining allocation decisions.
96-0115
This paper develops and validates measures of intergenerational
communication and influence about consumption. Despite the widespread
belief that parents play a pivotal role in the consumer socialization
of their children, empirical research on the skills, attitudes, and
preferences that are transmitted from one generation tot he next is
quite limited. One factor that may explain this deficiency is the lack
of appropriate instruments for assessing intergenerational issues.
Drawing on consumer socialization theory and research,
intergenerational transmission is defined in terms of three components
that are directly relevant to marketplace transactions; (i) consumer
skills, (ii) preferences, and (iii) attitudes towards marketer
supplied information. Multiple item scales were developed to measure
each of these components. The findings of four studies are reported
that support the reliability, dimensionality, and validity o the
intergenerational scales. Validation efforts incorporate
cross-cultural analyses from the U.S. and Thailand, as well as dyadic
level comparisons between parents and children.
96-0114
Magnitudes describing product attributes are basic elements used in
decision making. Although several researchers have emphasized the need
to understand how consumers categorize product attributes, empirical
research on this issue is rare. As a first step in developing and
evaluating methodologies to examine this issue, this study used a
sorting methodology. Hypotheses were generated to address important
theoretical issues relating to how consumers use magnitudes describing
product attributes. These hypotheses were tested in four studies. The
results suggest that the number of magnitudes used by consumers to
think about product attributes (i) is higher for abstract when
compared to concrete attributes, (ii) does not increase with attribute
importance among salient attributes, and (iii) is positively related
to the number of magnitudes used in an overall evaluation of liking.
The effect of "codability" of attributes was also examined.
Results of all studies also provided evidence to support the use of
the sorting method. Implications of this research are discussed.
96-0113
This study looks at the effects of three factors, task (learning or
choice), information format (brand- or attribute-) and information
mode (numerical or verbal) on comparative judgments of brand
attributes. Results provide some support that subjects directed to
learn product attributes values performed comparative judgments that
were slower, but more accurate, than subjects that were directed to
make a choice. Further, compared to verbal labels, numerical labels
resulted in more accurate comparative judgments. In addition, a
significant interaction effect of task and information mode was also
found. The research and managerial implication of these findings are
discussed.
96-0112
The objective of this research is to examine the representation of
numerical versus verbal product information in consumer memory. A
conceptual framework based on surface versus meaning level processing
of information is developed to examine the representation of numerical
versus verbal information in consumer memory. The basic proposition
tested here is that numerical information may be represented in memory
isomorphic with its presentation in the external environment to a
greater degree than verbal information. Research bearing on memory
representations is discussed to bring out methodological importance of
using a recognition paradigm. This paradigm is adopted here and
hypotheses are developed about the recognition of numerical versus
verbal product information following a learning task. The details of
two experiments conducted to test the hypotheses are presented.
Implications of this research for consumer behavior are discussed.
96-0111
96-0110
Marketing information about products is often conveyed by providing
numerical or verbal information along specific attributes. Such
information is the basic input to consumer decision making that is
utilized to make higher-level decisions. This paper reviews empirical
work on numerical and verbal information with the aim of synthesizing
past research in terms of what we know an where we go from here. In
keeping with this goal, the review of empirical research is organized
in terms of different elements of decision making, specifically,
information search, comparisons, memory, and evaluations. Details on
the empirical design of each study reviewed here are provided to
enable comparisons across studies. Insights drawn from each area are
synthesized in a discussion of theoretical implications and future
research directions in terms of dimensions along which numerical and
verbal information differ and impact of ability and motivation to
process information.
96-0109
This paper conceptualizes the construct of consumers' preference for
numerical information defined as consumers' proclivity toward using
numerical information and engaging in thinking involving numerical
information and develops and validates a measure of this construct.
The construct of consumers' preference for numerical information is
unique when compared to other individual difference variables in
marketing and consumer psychology in its explicit focus on consumers'
preference for magnitude information, the basic element used in
consumer decision making. Consumers' preference for numerical
information is argued to influence usage of numerical magnitude
information as well as other forms of product magnitude information
such as verbal information. A basic attitude toward numerical
information may impact various aspects of decision making by
influencing the degree to which consumers acquire and use product
decision making by influencing the degree to which consumers acquire
and use product information. Consumers' preference for numerical
information may moderate important phenomena in marketing that involve
the use of product magnitude information. A multiple item scale was
generated on the basis of the conceptual definition for consumers'
preference for numerical information (CPNI). Several studies provided
support for the scale's reliability, unidimensionality, and validity.
The CPNI scale was shown also to be related to aspects of consumer
decision making. Implications of this construct for consumer research
are discussed.
96-0108
This paper's empirical results indicate that the average effect of
antitakeover provisions on subsequent long-term investment is
negative. The interpretation of these results depends on whether one
thinks that there was too much, too little, or just the right amount
of long-term investment prior to the antitakeover provision adoption.
We use agency theory to devise more refined empirical tests of the
effects of the antitakeover provision adoptions by managers in firms
with different incentive and monitoring structures. Governance
variables (e.g., percentage of outsiders on corporate boards, and
separate CEO/Chairperson positions) have an insignificant impact on
subsequent long-term investment behavior. However, consistent with
agency theory predictions, managers in firms with better economic
incentives (higher insider ownership) tend to cut subsequent long-term
investment less than managers in firms with less incentive alignment.
Furthermore, managers in forms with greater external monitoring (due
to higher institutional ownership) also tend to cut subsequent
long-term investment less then managers in firms with less external
monitoring. Thus, the decrease in subsequent long-term investment is
significantly less for firms where the managers have greater
incentives to act in shareholders' interests.
Finally, there are interesting effects of the control variable. First,
high book equity/market equity firms cut total long-term investment
more. Second, firms that were takeover targets or rumored to be
takeover targets cut long-term investment more. These results suggest
that inefficient firms cut long-term investment more when an
antitakeover provision is adopted.
96-0107
Jørgen Pedersen (1890-1973) introduced Keynesian ideas in Denmark but
was more than just another Keynesian. In their basic models neither
Keynes himself nor his American followers found room for labor unions.
In 1944 Pedersen found such room and analyzed the macroeconomic
consequences of a collision between wage policy and monetary policy.
His analysis was intuitive, but the present article offers a rigorous
restatement of it.
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